SOCIOLINGUISTICS

Sociolinguistics means the study of language and society.

Sociolinguistics refers to the study/branch
of linguistics which studies language in relation to the society. It deals on how language is used in the society.

i)          Concept of language and learning acquisition.

ii)         Second language learning.

iii)        Approaches of language learning.

iv)        Language variation and language changes.

v)         Choices of language (changes) second language.

vi)        Language maintenance and dead.

vii)       Language planning and policy.

viii)      Pidgins and creoles.

ix)        Language use in the society.

x)         English language in multilingual society.

Assignment: explain what it means “to know a language?”

RONALD WARD HAUGH (2006) indicates four types of relationship that occur in sociolinguistics.

-          Socio-structure may influence or determine the linguistic structure or behavior. It might be age, academic status, sex, profession etc. The age of the participants is what guide the way language is used by a particular person.

-          The linguistic structure/behavior may determine /influence the social structure.

-          Bi-direction, it is the two form direction. The language and the society may influence each other.

-          There can be no relationship at all between the linguistic structure and the social structure, and that each is independent of the other.

According to Ronald Ward Haugh there are two approaches that a person must have grammatical rules which are rules of making well formed

-          This is due to the fact that any language has a rule govern, obeying certain universal principles.

-          A person must be able to use and understand the language in accordance with specific rules.

Language acquisition and language learning

Ellis 1985 says that in order for a person to learn or to acquire a language there are some factors that guide him or her to acquire a particular language.

·         1^st factor is known as situational factors: it includes the environment in which the language is learning or acquired, it can be classroom, the market, at home etc.

·         2^nd is a linguistic input: are language materials that a learner gets from the one who teaches him or her.

·         3^rdis an individual’s learner difference: differences in age, aptitude, motivation etc. can make this individual to learn a language.

·         4^th the learner processes: it refers to what is taking place to the brain within the child, learner –processes is happening inside the brain to a person who is learning language.

·         5^th language output: this is how a person uses a language; Ellis says that a person must have opportunities of using the learnt or the acquired language.

Theories of language learning;

i)          Behaviorism theory.

ii)         Socio-cultural theory.

iii)        Reinforcement.

iv)        Active construction of grammar theory.

v)         Connectionist theory.

vi)        Imitation theory.

vii)       Socio-interaction theory.

APPROACHES IN LEARNING SECOND LANGUAGE

a)   Grammar translation approach.

b)   Direct method approach.

c)   Audio-lingual method/approach.

d)   Structural or oral situational approach.

e)   Communicative approach.

f)    Total immersion approach.

g)   Total physical response.

h)   Cognitive approach.

i)    Silent way approach.

A.  GRAMMAR TRANSLATION APPROACH.

Is much based on the grammar of the second language, the main focus is the grammar of the second language. This approach was historical used in teaching Greek and Latin; it is among the first approach that has been used in teaching second language. Most countries use these kinds of methods to teach Greek and Latin, in grammar translation method the main focus is on developing learner’s appreciation of the target language’s literature as well as teaching the language itself. Learners are presented with the target language leaving passages then translating the literary passages into another language by memorizing the grammar (grammatical rules) in relation to the native language.

B.   DIRECT APPROACH

It dealing only direct with the target language, it allows the learners to perceive meaning directly through the language because no translation is allowed; it is using the target language that learners are learning. The facilitator uses visual aids and pantomimes (use of gestures) in order to clarify the meaning of vocabulary items and concepts. This approach reading and writing are taught from the beginning though speaking and listening skills are emphasized. The grammar of the target language is not much emphasized.

C.   AUDIO LINGUAL APPROACH

It is involve listening and speaking, sometimes known as audio-lingualism it claims that, language is primarily spoken and it emphasis is on listening and speaking. People should do some practices in language. The approach puts more emphasis on the extensively use of drill and dialogues where by drilling there should be the involvement of re-interactions of words, phrases or sentences which are altered by the teacher and then the learners either individually or as a group and dialogues are used to introduce new grammatical structures in a meaningful and cultural context.

D.  STRUCTURAL OR ORAL SITUATIONAL APPROACH

Language has the certain structure, therefore after knowing the structure the learners is supposed to speak a certain language, it was proposed in1920-1930’s by the scholar known as Harold Palmer and A. S Hornby, and they view language as a system of structurally element and in order to gain competence in language they believe that learners must understand the basic structure of the language, this should be accomplished by means of intensive and strictly control practice or reinforcement using drills and repetition exercises then these exercises must go together with the context of the second language.

E.   COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH

This approach stresses the need to teach communicative competence as opposed to linguistic competence thus functions are emphasized over the forms. People should learn the second language while they communicate with other people. Learners should be exposed to various materials and various activities should be used in learning second language. Communicative competence here the progressive acquisition of the ability to use the language to achieve ones communicative purpose is insisted.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH

·         The classroom should be devoted primarily to activities that forced the acquisition of the second language.

·         The instructor does not correct speech errors directly.

·         Students are allowed to respond in the target language or mixture of two languages.

·         The focus of all learning and speaking activities is on the interchange of the message that they acquirer or understand and meaning to transmit that is meaningful communication.

F.   TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE

Means the teacher will provide some words, elements and the learners will respond to what the teacher instruct, a teacher will be giving some instruction then the learners respond to the instruction. A learner is exposed to a person who knows the second language.

G.  COGNITIVE APPROACH

It is all about learning the language for all communicative skills are insisted, a person is taught how to write, to read, or to listen the language.

H.  SILENT WAY

This is like a two way traffic, sometimes the teacher speaking while the learner remains silent, and sometimes the learner speaking while the teacher listening to the learner. There is a point that the learner will be reading and writing. This means that a teacher should not correct the learner until the learner finish to speak at the end the teacher give comments.

GADNER SOCIAL EDUCATION THEORY

Was proposed in 19.., he explained issues the source, process and effect;

-          Altitude; the feelings.

-          Aptitude; ability of doing something.

-          Additive; you acquire the second language without affect the 1^st language.

Subtractive you acquire the 2^nd language and affect the 1^st language, learning of language start with individual.

When you want to learn the 2^nd language you start with individual;

There must be;

a)   Ability and aptitude; talent of learning.

b)   Altitude and motivation; political, economic and social.

-          Feeling about certain language.

·         Stages:

-          1^st stage; the issue of learning language must deal social and cultural background.

-          2^nd stage; individual differences which are due to cultural background.

·         Degree of intelligence.

·         Language aptitude.

·         Motivation ancient.

-          3^rd stage; environmental of learning language (context)

-          Formal and informal.

-          Formal language learning.

-          Informal language learning.

-          4^th stage; outcome, bilingual proficiency.

·         Is a system in which a certain group of people adopt a new culture from another group. Proposed by John Schumann 1978, the basic element of this mode is when someone learns a second language like acquiring the new culture. He proposed that there are social factor that help a person to learn a 2^nd language. He deals with group rather than individual desire assimilation of each group. Language learners and target group.

Number of people in group, language learners must be small in number.

-          Positive altitude, relation of language culture, time duration.

Function of language;

-          Communicative function.

-          Integrative function.

-          Expressive function- ideas, personality, feelings.

Proposed by Gils and Bryne in 1982, Language can be learned through group or inter group (in group or out group).

Characteristic of learners;

-          The learners will not regard his/her ethnic group as inferior to the dominant group, there is no boundary.

-          Learners accept that language.

-          Learners will not perceive vitality (has power).

-          Come out with 5 hypothesis in learning 2^nd language;

a)   Acquisition (subconscious), learning is acquired.

b)   Monter.

c)   Natural order hypothesis. Grammar structure of a particular group, when you acquire language you can acquire the communication.

d)   Learning is conscious.

·         Monter hypothesis, how acquisition and learning are initiate utterance, monter an utterance to inspect and to correct errors.

·         Natural order, the grammar/structure order of a language to a 2^nd learner it comes later.

·         Input hypothesis, must be exposed to the materials that support him/her in learning 2^nd language.

·         Affective filter hypothesis is altitude toward the language.

-          Motivation.

-          Self-confidence.

-          Anxiety.

Question: With relevant examples discuss any 3 theories which explain how humans become bilinguals or multi-linguals.

BILINGUALISM/MULTI-LINGUALISM

Bilingualism is ability of a person or people to master two languages.

Multilingualism is the ability of a person or people to use more than two languages. We have to refer on language abilities. We have to consider language skills or language abilities; speak, read, write and understanding in the language. It is not possible that a person can master all language abilities, multilingualism is a situation.

General types of bilingualism/multilingualism are categorized depending on the number of people who uses the language.

-          Individual multilingualism/bilingualism.

-          Societal multilingualism/bilingualism

·         Individual bilingualism is a situation where by a person has the ability to use two languages.

·         Societal bilingualism is a situation where by a society has the ability to use two languages.

Types of bilingualism;

a)   Compound/balance bilingual is a person who has equal competence in using two languages.

b)   Coordinate bilingual is a person who has different abilities in using two or more languages. In this a person is usually more fluent in the first language which is more dominant than other.

c)   Receptive bilingual is a person who has the ability to understand the language but cannot speak.

·         Speaking and writing productive.

How does bilinguals/multi-linguals develop? 

-          Migration.

-          Intermarriage between two couples of different tribe.

-          Trade activities.

-          Employment.

-          Religious activities.

-          Colonialism.

-          Pleasure.

-          Friendship/social interaction.

Theories which explain how a person can become a bilingual/multilingual;

·         Balanced theory proposed by Cummins 1981 also supported by Beaker 1993. Assume that a bilingual person have equal part in competence. He had two assumptions;

-          The monolingual has one big balloon for another language to stay.

-          The first language and second language are kept separately in the brain.

·         Strength

-          Shows the relationship between language learning and brain.

-          It is impossible to demonstrate the real object.

·         Weakness

-          Contrasting with types of bilingual.

-          Based on bilingual only.

·         Icebergs theory. Associate the ability of a person who is using two or more languages with tips of oce due to the presence of central operating system in the brain, one can acquire the second language without the source be interfered.

·         Strength

-          Try to show relationship between 1^st language and 2^nd language.

-          Support or assist an individual to learn more than two languages.

·         Weakness

-          Try to explain more about cognitive ability rather than environment.

-          How and the way of mastering language and which language dominant.

-          Based on multilingual rather than bilingual.

·         Threshold theory. Bilingualism is based expressed by the idea of threshold. The student who shows illiterate in 1^st language will show progress on the other language.

3rd                                2nd threshold

2nd                                1st threshold

1st

1^st language                                                                 2^nd language

1^st floor an individual have no competence in any language. It is known as limited competence.

2^nd floor an individual have competence only in one language, it is not balanced.

Development of language must pass through different stages/levels.

·         Strength

-          Try to explain development of language through levels.

·         Weakness

-          Specific age and time

-          Factor

-          A person cannot have the same competence in language.

·         Factors for the existence of diaglosia.

TYPES OF DIAGLOSIA

j)    Individual bilingualism diaglosia.

k)   Diaglosia without bilingualism.

l)    Bilingualism without diaglosia.

It occurs when people of the community are bilinguals.

·         Terms related to diaglosia.

i)          Creole is the language that originated from pidgin.

ii)         Dialect is the variety of language according to the users.

There are two types of dialect;

-          American English dialect.

-          British English dialect.

FACTORS FOR THE EMERGENCE OF DIAGLOSIA/TRIAGLOSIA

1.   Function factor according to assigned roles of the language.

2.   Stability- how far does that language exist.

3.   Prestige factor.

4.   Interaction among individual.

Diaglosia is a situation where by two languages co-exists in a community each having a set of roles to play.

TYPES OF DIAGLOSIA

-          Bilingualism without diaglosia, existence of two languages in the community but they have not been assigned any special roles to play.

-          Bilingualism with diaglosia, existence of two or more languages and those languages has been given roles to play.

-          Diaglosia without bilingualism, existence of different languages in the community although the people are not bilinguals.

-          Neither diaglosia nor bilingualism existence of many language which have not been assigned any role.

CODE MIXING AND CODE SWITCHING

Code- symbols which represent a certain meaning and they are used only for language. Symbols of language are words.

Symbols- there are no relationship with the real object.

Speech event refer to any instant of speaking.

Code switching is the use of more than one language in a speech event which occurs always in a multilingual community where by a person switches the language to another linguistic unity after completing a certain linguistic unit. These always occurs in the clause or sentence level, for example

-          I am dancing kwa sababu napenda muziki.

Code mixing is the use of more than one language in the same linguistic unit like the word, phrase, clause or sentence.

The major difference is the level of linguistic unit that used.

What are the reasons of code switching and code mixing?

i)          Lack of competence.

ii)         Prestige.

iii)        Hiding some information.

iv)        Clarify.

v)         Emphasis.

vi)        Avoidance of taboo words.

vii)       Competence.

viii)      Psychological reasons.

Speech community, dialect, sociolect

Speech-language is individual based. It is a person who possess the language.sociolinguisitcs def

Ine speech community as the group of people who use a certain particular language or dialect. It is sometimes can make some ambiguity through various reasons. An individual use of two or more languages supposes the existence of two or more different languages communities but not the existence of a bilingual or multilingual community.

Dialect- it is used to refer the language that is spoken by certain class of people, geographical location.

-          Sociolect- socio group.

Dialect defines as a regional variety of language with differences in vocabulary, grammar or pronunciation.

Sociolect is used interchangeably with social dialect. This is a variety which is thought of be related to its speakers socio background rather than geographical background. Dialect is limited geographically while sociolect is limited to socially distributed sets.

Idiolect is an individual’s style of using the language. The language of individual of acquired habit and stylistic features of personality differ from that of other individuals. It is much realized on pronunciation although it can be seen in other forms of language.

Culture is the totality way of people life.

Relation towards the structure of the world views morphological and semantic.

-          Is the structure of language determines the way in which speakers of that language view the word, for example mwa- for male, se- for female.

-          The culture of people find reflection in the language they employ, some words are prohibited in certain culture, for example taboo words.

-          The culture is a set to respond to perception in a specific way. For example shaking hand, women kneeling down. According to Noam Chomsky is an idea of performance.

-          Language change is influenced by changes of the society, due to the growth of population also language changes, for example in Kiswahili early contact.

-          Culture is transmitted through language, for example in wedding, greeting.

-          Language is an aspect of culture.

Context that reflect relationship between language and culture;

·         Intrapersonal context.

·         Imaginative context.

·         Regulative context.

·         Instructional context.

-          Imaginative context, individual is forced or influenced to create new words in order to suit the needs according to the culture.

-          Intrapersonal context, an individual is aware of affective use of words. Culture shapes an individual to use words properly.

-          Regulative- an individual is aware which language is acceptable and which is not acceptable- select words according to the context.

-          Instructional context- human can learn about objective, nature of objective and skills that may be aware with culture. Is instructional according to welfare, for example the use of coconut.

-          Domain channel;

a)   Province.

b)   Status such as educated and non-educated.

c)   Style-choice of word.

Factors for variation of language;

-          Geographical setting, they have differences in vocabularies, spelling, pronunciation.

-          Socio structure, different social classes.

-          Profession, for example doctors, lawyer.

-          Ethnic group, different culture in particular geographical area.

-          Age differences, such as child, youth, adult.

-          Gender-social differences between women and man, for example communicating.